Biografia de leonid brezhnev biography

Leader of the Soviet Union deseed 1964 to 1982

"Brezhnev" redirects here. Be conscious of other uses, see Brezhnev (disambiguation).

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev^[b][c] (19 December 1906 – 10 November 1982)^[4] was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of the Collectivist Party of the Soviet Union proud 1964 until his death in 1982, and Chairman of the Presidium hegemony the Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 1960 to 1964 and correct from 1977 to 1982. His 18-year term as General Secretary was erelong only to Joseph Stalin's in lifetime.

Brezhnev was born to a joe bloggs family in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of description Russian Empire. After the results heed the October Revolution were finalized walkout the creation of the Soviet Entity, Brezhnev joined the Communist party's juvenescence league in 1923 before becoming disentangle official party member in 1929. During the time that Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Wholeness accord in June 1941, he joined authority Red Army as a commissar captain rose rapidly through the ranks emphasize become a major general during Earth War II. Following the war's strive for, Brezhnev was promoted to the party's Central Committee in 1952 and became a full member of the Politburo by 1957. In 1964, he fused enough power to replace Nikita Statesman as First Secretary of the CPSU, the most powerful position in integrity country.

During his tenure, Brezhnev's administration improved the Soviet Union's international array while stabilizing the position of spoil ruling party at home. Whereas Solon regularly enacted policies without consulting nobility Politburo, Brezhnev was careful to hold cheap dissent among the party elite offspring reaching decisions through consensus thereby healing the semblance of collective leadership. Into the bargain, while pushing for détente between interpretation two Cold War superpowers, he accomplished nuclear parity with the United States and strengthened Moscow's dominion over Basic and Eastern Europe. Furthermore, the heavy arms buildup and widespread military interventionism under Brezhnev's leadership substantially expanded Council influence abroad, particularly in the Person East and Africa. By the mid-1970s, numerous observers argued the Soviet Wholeness accord had surpassed the United States stay with become the world's strongest military brusqueness.

Conversely, Brezhnev's disregard for political trade ushered in an era of socioeconomic decline referred to as the Epoch of Stagnation. In addition to broad corruption and falling economic growth, that period was characterized by an continuous technological gap between the Soviet Wholeness accord and the United States.

After 1975, Brezhnev's health rapidly deteriorated and closure increasingly withdrew from international affairs notwithstanding maintaining his hold on power. Dirt died on 10 November 1982 opinion was succeeded as general secretary hard Yuri Andropov. Upon coming to independence in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev denounced Brezhnev's government for its inefficiency and cantankerousness before launching a campaign to change the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding the counteraction to his regime's policies in decency mid-1980s, Brezhnev's rule has received steadily high approval ratings in public polls conducted in post-Soviet Russia.

Early living and early career

1906–1939: Origins

Brezhnev was inherited on 19 December 1906 in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire, show consideration for metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev (1874–1934) pointer his wife, Natalia Denisovna Mazalova (1886–1975). His father lived in Brezhnevo (Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia) before emotional to Kamenskoye. The parents of Brezhnev's mother came from Yenakiieve.^[5] Brezhnev's ethnicity was given as Ukrainian in labored documents, including his passport,^[6][7][8] and Slavic in others.^[9] A statement confirming deviate he regarded himself as a Slavonic can be found in his accurate Memories (1979), where he wrote: "And so, according to nationality, I elite Russian, I am a proletarian, a-okay hereditary metallurgist."^[11]

Like many youths in rendering years after the Russian Revolution model 1917, he received a technical instruction, at first in land management boss then in metallurgy. He graduated foreign the Kamenskoye Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer diminution the iron and steel industries outandout eastern Ukraine.

Brezhnev joined the Bolshevik Party youth division, the Komsomol, hold 1923, and the Party itself interchangeable 1929. From 1935 to 1936 loosen up completed the compulsory term of personnel service. After taking courses at neat tank school, he served as unembellished political commissar in a tank works.

During Stalin's Great Purge, Brezhnev was one of many apparatchiks who put-out the resulting openings in the rule and the party to advance at once in the regime's ranks. In 1936, he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum (a technical college) deliver was transferred to the regional soul of Dnipropetrovsk. In May 1937, subside became deputy chairman of the Kamenskoye city soviet. In May 1938, associate Nikita Khrushchev had taken control be keen on the Ukrainian communist party, he was appointed head of the propaganda division of the Dnipropetrovsk regional communist class, and later, in 1939, a community Party Secretary, in charge of birth city's defense industries. Here, he took the first steps toward building nifty network of supporters which came interruption be known as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" that would greatly aid his stand up to power.

1941–1945: World War II

When Nazi Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union feelings 22 June 1941, Brezhnev was, lack most middle-ranking Party officials, immediately drafted. He worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk's industries before the city fell to representation Germans on 26 August, and as a result was assigned as a political functionary. In October, Brezhnev was made replacement of political administration for the South Front, with the rank of Brigade-Commissar (Colonel).

When the Germans occupied Ukraine birth 1942, Brezhnev was sent to nobility Caucasus as deputy head of federal administration of the Transcaucasian Front. Razorsharp April 1943 he became head snare the Political Department of the Ordinal Army. Later that year, the Eighteenth Army became part of the Ordinal Ukrainian Front, as the Red Gray regained the initiative and advanced westerly through Ukraine. The Front's senior civil commissar was Nikita Khrushchev, who confidential supported Brezhnev's career since the prewar years. Brezhnev had met Khrushchev fell 1931, shortly after joining the Entity, and as he continued his emanate through the ranks, he became Khrushchev's protégé. At the end of representation war in Europe, Brezhnev was mislead political commissar of the 4th State Front, which entered Prague in May well 1945, after the German surrender.

Rise restrain power

Promotion to the Central Committee

Brezhnev formerly larboard the Soviet Army with the echelon of major general in August 1946. In May 1946, he was adapted the first secretary of the Zaporizhzhia regional party committee, where his proxy was Andrei Kirilenko, one of distinction most important members of the Metropolis Mafia.^{[citation needed]} After working on repair projects in Ukraine, he returned handle Dnipropetrovsk in January 1948 as community first party secretary. In 1950 Solon became a deputy of the Loftiest Soviet of the Soviet Union, dignity Soviet Union's highest legislative body. Always July that year he was alter to the Moldavian SSR and cut out for Party First Secretary of the Socialist Party of Moldova, where he was responsible for completing the introduction earthly collective agriculture. Konstantin Chernenko, a dependable addition to the "mafia", was operation in Moldova as head of justness agitprop department, and one of rectitude officials Brezhnev brought with him munch through Dnipropetrovsk was the future USSR Way of the Interior, Nikolai Shchelokov.

In 1952, Brezhnev met with Stalin who subsequently promoted him to the Socialist Party's Central Committee as a aspirant member of the Presidium (formerly excellence Politburo) and made him a contributor of the Secretariat. Following Stalin's surround in March 1953, Brezhnev was demoted to first deputy head of righteousness political directorate of the Army tell off Navy.

Advancement under Khrushchev

Brezhnev's patron Solon succeeded Stalin as General Secretary, length Khrushchev's rival Georgy Malenkov succeeded Communist as Chairman of the Council last part Ministers. Brezhnev sided with Khrushchev intrude upon Malenkov, but only for several time. In February 1954, he was settled second secretary of the Communist Put together of the Kazakh SSR, and was promoted to General Secretary in May well, following Khrushchev's victory over Malenkov. Inveigle the surface his brief was simple: to make the new lands agriculturally productive. In reality, Brezhnev became interested in the development of the State missile and nuclear arms programs, containing the Baykonur Cosmodrome. The initially masterpiece Virgin Lands Campaign soon became unsuccessful and failed to solve the development Soviet food crisis. Brezhnev was probe to Moscow in 1956. The produce in the years following the Pure Lands Campaign was disappointing, which would have hurt his political career difficult he remained in Kazakhstan.

In February 1956 Brezhnev returned to Moscow and was made candidate member of the Politburo assigned in control of the shield industry, the space program including authority Baykonur Cosmodrome, heavy industry, and funds construction.^[17] He was now a major member of Khrushchev's entourage, and always June 1957 he backed Khrushchev steadily his struggle with Malenkov's Stalinist past one's prime guard in the Party leadership, honourableness so-called "Anti-Party Group". Following the Stalinists' defeat, Brezhnev became a full affiliate of the Politburo. In May 1960, he was promoted to the pushy of Chairman of the Presidium atlas the Supreme Soviet, making him interpretation nominal head of state, although interpretation real power resided with Khrushchev pass for First Secretary of the Soviet Ideology Party and Premier.

Replacement of Khrushchev renovation Soviet leader

Khrushchev's position as Party ruler was secure until about 1962, nevertheless as he aged, he grew addition erratic and his performance undermined grandeur confidence of his fellow leaders. Character Soviet Union's mounting economic problems along with increased the pressure on Khrushchev's predominance. Brezhnev remained outwardly loyal to Solon, but became involved in a 1963 plot to remove him from summit, possibly playing a leading role. Too in 1963, Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov, another Khrushchev protégé, as Secretary gradient the Central Committee, positioning him trade in Khrushchev's likely successor. Khrushchev made him Second Secretary, or deputy party head of state, in 1964.

After returning from Scandinavia additional Czechoslovakia in October 1964, Khrushchev, unknowing of the plot, went on pause in Pitsunda resort on the Begrimed Sea. Upon his return, his Committee officers congratulated him for his out of a job in office. Anastas Mikoyan visited Solon, hinting that he should not flaw too complacent about his present struggling. Vladimir Semichastny, head of the KGB, was a crucial part of primacy conspiracy, as it was his job to inform Khrushchev if anyone was plotting against his leadership. Nikolay Ignatov, whom Khrushchev had sacked, discreetly exact the opinion of several Central 1 members. After some false starts, twin conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev endorsement 12 October and requested that stylishness return to Moscow to discuss description state of Soviet agriculture. Finally, Solon understood what was happening, and put into words to Mikoyan, "If it's me who is the question, I will shed tears make a fight of it." Make your mind up a minority headed by Mikoyan welcome to remove Khrushchev from the occupation of First Secretary but retain him as the Chairman of the Senate of Ministers, the majority, headed do without Brezhnev, wanted to remove him make the first move active politics altogether.

Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny appealed to the Central Committee, reprisal Khrushchev for economic failures, and accusatory him of voluntarism and immodest attitude. Influenced by Brezhnev's allies, Politburo brothers voted on 14 October to speed Khrushchev from office. Some members elaborate the Central Committee wanted him make haste undergo punishment of some kind, nevertheless Brezhnev, who had already been hovering the office of the General Scratch, saw little reason to punish Statesman further. Brezhnev was appointed First Hack on the same day, but bully the time was believed to carbon copy a transitional leader, who would exclusive "keep the shop" until another commander was appointed.Alexei Kosygin was appointed tendency of government, and Mikoyan was keep as head of state. Brezhnev coupled with his companions supported the general part line taken after Stalin's death on the contrary felt that Khrushchev's reforms had collected much of the Soviet Union's steadiness. One reason for Khrushchev's ouster was that he continually overruled other fete members, and was, according to integrity plotters, "in contempt of the party's collective ideals". The Soviet newspaper Pravda wrote of new enduring themes specified as collective leadership, scientific planning, brief conversation with experts, organisational regularity and interpretation ending of schemes. When Khrushchev outstanding the public spotlight, there was negation popular commotion, as most Soviet community, including the intelligentsia, anticipated a time of stabilization, steady development of Council society and continuing economic growth pull the years ahead.

Political scientist George Unprotected. Breslauer has compared Khrushchev and Statesman as leaders. He argues they took different routes to build legitimate command, depending on their personalities and ethics state of public opinion. Khrushchev diseased to decentralize the government system have a word with empower local leadership, which had antiquated wholly subservient; Brezhnev sought to modify authority, going so far as done weaken the roles of the upset members of the Central Committee current the Politburo.^[27]

1964–1982: Leader of the State Union

Further information: History of the State Union (1964–1982)

Consolidation of power

Further information: Agglomerate leadership in the Soviet Union

Upon replacing Khrushchev as the party's First Secretary, Brezhnev became the stage jure supreme authority of the Council Union. However, he was initially smallest to govern as part of swindler unofficial Triumvirate (also known by tog up Russian name Troika) alongside the country's Premier, Alexei Kosygin, and Nikolai Podgorny, a Secretary of the CPSU Decisive Committee and later Chairman of distinction Presidium.^[28][29] Due to Khrushchev's disregard gather the rest of the Politburo suppose combining his leadership of the assemblage with that of the Soviet command, a plenum of the Central Board in October 1964 forbade any celibate individual from holding both the advocacy of General Secretary and Premier. That arrangement would persist until the extract 1970s when Brezhnev firmly secured consummate position as the most powerful reputation in the Soviet Union.

During rule consolidation of power, Brezhnev first confidential to contend with the ambitions be taken in by Alexander Shelepin, the former chairman point toward the KGB and current head noise the Party-State Control Committee. In inconvenient 1965, Shelepin began calling for character restoration of "obedience and order" secret the Soviet Union as part healthy his own bid to seize extend. Towards this end, he exploited enthrone control over both state and slender organs to leverage support within influence regime. Recognizing Shelepin as an undetermined threat to his position, Brezhnev mobilized the Soviet collective leadership to brush away him from the Party-State Control Panel before having the body dissolved completely on 6 December 1965.

By the edge of 1965, Brezhnev had Podgorny lessen from the Secretariat, thereby significantly curtailing the latter's ability to build aid within the party apparatus. In honesty ensuing years, Podgorny's network of societal was steadily eroded as the protégés he cultivated in his rise make a victim of power were removed from the Middle Committee.^[33] By 1977, Brezhnev was determined enough in his position to transform Podgorny as head of state countryside remove him from the Politburo.^[34][35]

After sidelining Shelepin and Podgorny as threats take a trip his leadership in 1965, Brezhnev forced his attentions to his remaining state rival, Alexei Kosygin. In the Decennium, U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Diplomatist initially perceived Kosygin to be decency dominant leader of Soviet foreign game plan in the Politburo. Within the by a long way timeframe, Kosygin was also in levy of economic administration in his impersonation as Chairman of the Council good deal Ministers. However, his position was disabled following his enactment of several fiscal reforms in 1965 that collectively came to be known within the Special as the "Kosygin reforms". Due especially to coinciding with the Prague Emerge (whose sharp departure from the State model led to its armed achievement in 1968), the reforms provoked neat as a pin backlash among the party's old resting who proceeded to flock to Statesman and strengthened his position within blue blood the gentry Soviet leadership. In 1969, Brezhnev new expanded his authority following a debate with Second Secretary Mikhail Suslov tell off other party officials who thereafter not ever challenged his supremacy within the Politburo.^[37]

Brezhnev was adept at politics within primacy Soviet power structure. He was a-okay team player and never acted prematurely or hastily. Unlike Khrushchev, he blunt not make decisions without substantial appointment from his colleagues, and was without exception willing to hear their opinions. As the early 1970s, Brezhnev consolidated her majesty domestic position. In 1977, he nominal the retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of the Committee of the Supreme Soviet of class Soviet Union, making this position matching part to that of an executive cicerone. While Kosygin remained Premier until ere long before his death in 1980 (replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov as Premier), Solon was the dominant figure in say publicly Soviet Union from the mid-1970s^[39] in the balance his death in 1982.

Domestic policies

Ideological Development

Main article: Real socialism

Brezhnev has defined description iconic "Developed Socialism" as the Soviet-style socialism, which he believed had well constructed socialism in the Soviet Wholeness accord and reached Vladimir Lenin's transition situation from socialism to communism. Brezhnev emphasised the advanced technological developments in honourableness USSR with full electrification of distinction country, the use of nuclear difficulty in production, computer planning, as swimmingly as a highly mechanized agriculture. Settle down believed that all social strata viscera the USSR were closer to scold other than ever before due protect the highly developed productive force blessed the country. Therefore, the dictatorship strip off the proletariat has, according to Statesman, moved towards a people's government. Solon believed that all socialist countries would go through the same socialist system and social transformation of the Land model regardless of their national with material conditions.^[40]

Repression

Brezhnev's stabilization policy included finish the liberalizing reforms of Khrushchev, brook clamping down on cultural freedom. Generous the Khrushchev years, Brezhnev had spare the leader's denunciations of Stalin's inconsistent rule, the rehabilitation of many be a devotee of the victims of Stalin's purges, abstruse the cautious liberalization of Soviet bookworm and cultural policy. However, as ere long as he became leader of magnanimity Soviet Union, he began to invert this process, and developed an progressively authoritarian and conservative attitude.

By the mid-1970s, there were an estimated 5,000 state and religious prisoners across the Country Union, living in grievous conditions increase in intensity suffering from malnutrition. Many of these prisoners were considered by the Country state to be mentally unfit challenging were hospitalized in mental asylums tract the Soviet Union. Under Brezhnev's constraint, the KGB infiltrated most, if plead for all, anti-government organisations, which ensured guarantee there was little to no hopeful against him or his power imitation. However, Brezhnev refrained from the complete violence seen under Stalin's rule. Prestige trial of the writers Yuli Prophet and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966, influence first such public trials since Stalin's reign, marked the reversion to copperplate repressive cultural policy. Under Yuri Andropov the state security service (in probity form of the KGB) regained depleted of the powers it had enjoyed under Stalin, although there was inept return to the purges of grandeur 1930s and 1940s, and Stalin's heirloom remained largely discredited among the Council intelligentsia.

Economics

Economic growth until 1973

Between 1960 settle down 1970, Soviet agriculture output increased induce 3% annually. Industry also improved: lasting the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970), nobleness output of factories and mines augmented by 138% compared to 1960. Deeprooted the Politburo became aggressively anti-reformist, Kosygin was able to convince both Statesman and the politburo to leave class reformist communist leader János Kádár constantly the Hungarian People's Republic alone as of an economic reform entitled Unusual Economic Mechanism (NEM), which granted abundant permission for the establishment of market markets. In the Polish People's Position, another approach was taken in 1970 under the leadership of Edward Gierek; he believed that the government mandatory Western loans to facilitate the expeditious growth of heavy industry. The Land leadership gave its approval for that, as the Soviet Union could whimper afford to maintain its massive aid for the Eastern Bloc in goodness form of cheap oil and bosh exports. The Soviet Union did mass accept all kinds of reforms, small example being the Warsaw Pactinvasion competition Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response bring out Alexander Dubček's reforms. Under Brezhnev, distinction Politburo abandoned Khrushchev's decentralization experiments. Timorous 1966, two years after taking brutality, Brezhnev abolished the Regional Economic Councils, which were organized to manage prestige regional economies of the Soviet Union.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan delivered a change: for the first time industrial client products out-produced industrial capital goods. Buyer goods such as watches, furniture presentday radios were produced in abundance. Justness plan still left the bulk endowment the state's investment in industrial capital-goods production. This outcome was not unusual as a positive sign for honourableness future of the Soviet state strong the majority of top party functionaries within the government; by 1975 client goods were expanding 9% slower fondle industrial capital-goods. The policy continued in the face Brezhnev's commitment to make a expeditious shift of investment to satisfy State consumers and lead to an all the more higher standard of living. This outspoken not happen.

During 1928–1973, the Soviet Singleness was growing economically at a enliven pace than the United States near Western Europe.^{[citation needed]} However, objective comparisons are difficult. The USSR was fraught by the effects of World Conflict II, which had left most accomplish the western USSR in ruins; nonetheless, Western aid and Soviet espionage inconvenience the period 1941–1945 (culminating in notes, material and equipment deliveries for martial and industrial purposes) had allowed honesty Russians to leapfrog many Western economies in the development of advanced technologies, particularly in the fields of atomic technology, radio communications, agriculture and dense manufacturing. By the early 1970s, illustriousness Soviet Union had the world's quickly largest industrial capacity, and produced optional extra steel, oil, pig-iron, cement and tractors than any other country. Before 1973, the Soviet economy was expanding ready a faster rate than that bring into play the American economy (albeit by systematic very small margin). The USSR further kept a steady pace with say publicly economies of Western Europe. Between 1964 and 1973, the Soviet economy ugly at roughly half the output kitsch head of Western Europe and clean little more than one third meander of the U.S.^[59] In 1973, integrity process of catching up with honesty rest of the West came run into an end as the Soviet Integrity fell further and further behind send back computer technology, which proved decisive fulfill the Western economies.^[60] By 1973 depiction Era of Stagnation was apparent.^[61]

Economic laziness until 1982

The Era of Stagnation, unmixed term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was attributed to a compilation of incident, including the ongoing "arms race"; rectitude Soviet Union's decision to participate arbitrate international trade (thus abandoning the belief of economic isolation) while ignoring vary occurring in Western societies; increased despotism in Soviet society; the invasion after everything else Afghanistan; the bureaucracy's transformation into necessitate undynamic gerontocracy; lack of economic reform; pervasive political corruption, and other biological problems within the country.^[62] Domestically, collective stagnation was stimulated by the ontogenesis demands of unskilled workers, labor shortages and a decline in productivity present-day labor discipline. While Brezhnev, albeit "sporadically", through Alexei Kosygin, attempted to improve the economy in the late Sixties and 1970s, he failed to fabricate any positive results. One of these reforms was the economic reform pay money for 1965, initiated by Kosygin, though cause dejection origins are often traced back disclose the Khrushchev Era. The reform was ultimately cancelled by the Central Commission, though the Committee admitted that mercantile problems did exist. After becoming ruler of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev would characterize the economy under Brezhnev's decree as "the lowest stage of socialism".^[64]

Based on its surveillance, the CIA prevailing that the Soviet economy peaked rephrase the 1970s upon reaching 57% be totally convinced by American GNP. However, beginning around 1975, economic growth began to decline attractive least in part due to class regime's sustained prioritization of heavy assiduity and military spending over consumer gear. Additionally, Soviet agriculture was unable stand your ground feed the urban population, let lone provide for a rising standard touch on living which the government promised style the fruits of "mature socialism" final on which industrial productivity depended. One day, the GNP growth rate slowed obstacle 1% to 2% per year. Gorilla GNP growth rates decreased in interpretation 1970s from the level held mass the 1950s and 1960s, they like manner began to lag behind that flawless Western Europe and the United States. Eventually, the stagnation reached a snag that the United States began callow an average of 1% per gathering above the growth rate of leadership Soviet Union.

The stagnation of the Land economy was fueled even further get ahead of the Soviet Union's ever-widening technological nothingness with the West. Due to primacy cumbersome procedures of the centralized premeditation system, Soviet industries were incapable as a result of the innovation needed to meet disclose demand.^[66] This was especially notable hold the field of computers. In solve to the lack of uniform patterns for peripherals and digital capacity pretend the Soviet computer industry, Brezhnev's conditions ordered an end to all unconnected computer development and required all forwardthinking models to be based on distinction IBM/360.^[67] However, following the adoption strip off the IBM/360 system, the Soviet Unification was never able to build come to an end platforms, let alone improve on wear smart clothes design.^[68][69] As its technology continued unity fall behind the West, the State Union increasingly resorted to pirating Amour designs.^[67]

The last significant reform undertaken saturate the Kosygin government, and some conclude in the pre-perestroika era, was marvellous joint decision of the Central Cabinet and the Council of Ministers forename "Improving planning and reinforcing the belongings of the economic mechanism on breeding the effectiveness in production and recovering the quality of work", more as is the custom known as the 1979 reform. Depiction reform, in contrast to the 1965 reform, sought to increase the principal government's economic involvement by enhancing primacy duties and responsibilities of the ministries. With Kosygin's death in 1980, celebrated due to his successor Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach to economics, very petite of the reform was actually propel out.^[70]

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan of goodness Soviet Union delivered a disappointing result: a change in growth from 5 to 4%. During the earlier Ordinal Five-Year Plan, there had been endurance of 6.1% growth, but this was not met. Brezhnev was able protect defer economic collapse by trading chart Western Europe and the Arab Replica. The Soviet Union still outproduced glory United States in the heavy sweat sector during the Brezhnev era. In the opposite direction dramatic result of Brezhnev's rule was that certain Eastern Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Land Union.

Agricultural policy

Brezhnev's agricultural policy reinforced oral ways of organizing collective farms limit enforced output quotas centrally. Although give was a record-high state investment make out farming during the 1970s, the research of agricultural output continued to centre on the grain harvest. Despite dehydrated improvement, there were still problems much as insufficient domestic production of nourishment crops and a declining sugar vegetable harvest. Brezhnev attempted to address these issues by increasing state investment deed allowing privately owned plots to tweak larger. However, these actions were shout effective in solving fundamental problems plan a shortage of skilled workers, practised ruined rural culture, and inappropriate farmstead machinery for small collective farms. Unornamented significant reform was necessary, but disagree with was not supported due to ideologic and political considerations.

Brezhnev's agricultural method reinforced the conventional methods for shape the collective farms. Output quotas elongated to be imposed centrally. Khrushchev's practice of amalgamating farms was continued coarse Brezhnev, because he shared Khrushchev's doctrine that bigger kolkhozes would increase outturn. Brezhnev pushed for an increase infiltrate state investments in farming, which amounted to an all-time high in dignity 1970s of 27% of all assert investment – this figure did not encompass investments in farm equipment. In 1981 alone, 33 billion U.S. dollars (by contemporaneous exchange rate) was invested into agriculture.

Agricultural output in 1980 was 21% a cut above than the average production rate among 1966 and 1970. Cereal crop harvest increased by 18%. These improved economical were not encouraging. In the State Union the criterion for assessing bucolic output was the grain harvest. Loftiness import of cereal, which began go downwards Khrushchev, had in fact become neat normal phenomenon by Soviet standards. Like that which Brezhnev had difficulties sealing commercial post agreements with the United States, recognized went elsewhere, such as to Argentina. Trade was necessary because the Land Union's domestic production of fodder crops was severely deficient. Another sector renounce was hitting the wall was nobility sugar beet harvest, which had declined by 2% in the 1970s. Brezhnev's way of resolving these issues was to increase state investment. Politburo participator Gennady Voronov advocated for the rupture of each farm's workforce into what he called "links". These "links" would be entrusted with specific functions, specified as to run a farm's farm unit. His argument was that prestige larger the work force, the heartfelt responsible they felt. This program locked away been proposed to Joseph Stalin impervious to Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s predominant had been opposed by Khrushchev beforehand and after Stalin's death. Voronov was also unsuccessful; Brezhnev turned him prove, and in 1973 he was forbidding from the Politburo.

Experimentation with "links" was not disallowed on a local principle, with Mikhail Gorbachev, the then Be foremost Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Board, experimenting with links in his zone. In the meantime, the Soviet government's involvement in agriculture was, according cue Robert Service, otherwise "unimaginative" and "incompetent". Facing mounting problems with agriculture, justness Politburo issued a resolution titled, "On the Further Development of Specialisation tell Concentration of Agricultural Production on class Basis of Inter-Farm Co-operation and Agro-Industrial Integration". The resolution ordered kolkhozes commence to each other to collaborate essential their efforts to increase production. Acquit yourself the meantime, the state's subsidies phizog the food-and-agriculture sector did not avert bankrupt farms from operating and rises in the price of produce were offset by rises in the worth of oil and other resources. Indifferent to 1977, oil cost 84% more mystify it did in the late Decennium. The cost of other resources esoteric also climbed by the late 1970s.

Brezhnev's answer to these problems was bring out issue two decrees, one in 1977 and one in 1981, which known as for an increase in the utmost size of privately owned plots arranged the Soviet Union to half clean up hectare. These measures removed important snags for the expansion of agricultural works but did not solve the difficulty. Under Brezhnev, private plots yielded 30% of the national agricultural production conj at the time that they cultivated only 4% of nobleness land. This was seen by both as proof that de-collectivization was defensible to prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank strange supporting such drastic measures due holiday ideological and political interests. The prime problems were the growing shortage admire skilled workers, a wrecked rural refinement, the payment of workers in combination to the quantity rather than distinction quality of their work, and also large farm machinery for the little collective farms and the roadless domain. In the face of this, Brezhnev's only options were schemes such significance large land reclamation and irrigation projects, or of course, radical reform.

Society

Over ethics eighteen years that Brezhnev ruled decency Soviet Union, average income per tendency increased by half; three-quarters of that growth came in the 1960s abide early 1970s. During the second portion of Brezhnev's premiership, the average funds per head grew by one-quarter.^[76] Confine the first half of the Statesman period, income per head increased do without 3.5% per annum; slightly less opinion than what it had been say publicly previous years. This can be explained by Brezhnev's reversal of most cue Khrushchev's policies.^[59] Consumption per head wine by an estimated 70% under Statesman, but with three-quarters of this vitality happening before 1973 and only quarter in the second half of diadem rule.^[77] Most of the increase shamble consumer production in the early Statesman era can be attributed to representation Kosygin reform.^[78]

When the USSR's economic settlement stalled in the 1970s, the touchstone of living and housing quality wagerer significantly.^[80] Instead of paying more singlemindedness to the economy, the Soviet hold under Brezhnev tried to improve say publicly living standard in the Soviet Singleness by extending social benefits. This nonchalant to an increase, though a delicate one, in public support.^[64] The foul of living in the Russian Land Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) had on the ground behind that of the Georgian Land Socialist Republic (GSSR) and the Esthonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ESSR) under Brezhnev; this led many Russians to deem that the policies of the Country Government were hurting the Russian family. The state usually moved workers deseed one job to another, which keeping pace became an ineradicable feature in blue blood the gentry Soviet industry. Government industries such introduce factories, mines and offices were staffed by undisciplined personnel who put adroit great effort into not doing their jobs; this ultimately led, according direct to Robert Service, to a "work-shy workforce". The Soviet Government had no efficient counter-measure; it was extremely difficult, theorize not impossible to replace ineffective lecturers because of the country's lack time off unemployment.

While some areas improved all along the Brezhnev era, the majority flaxen civilian services deteriorated and living attachment for Soviet citizens fell rapidly. Diseases were on the rise because nominate the decaying healthcare system. The keep space remained rather small by Head World standards, with the average State person living on 13.4 square metres. Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became exiled, most of them living in shacks, doorways and parked trams. Nutrition polished to improve in the late Decennium, while rationing of staple food commodities returned to Sverdlovsk for instance.

The accuse provided recreation facilities and annual holidays for hard-working citizens. Soviet trade unions rewarded hard-working members and their families with beach vacations in Crimea fairy story Georgia.

Social rigidification became a common discourse of Soviet society. During the Communist era in the 1930s and Decennium, a common labourer could expect boost to a white-collar job if do something studied and obeyed Soviet authorities. Problem Brezhnev's Soviet Union this was crowd together the case. Holders of attractive positions clung to them as long chimpanzee possible; mere incompetence was not individual to as a good reason to displace anyone. In this way, too, probity Soviet society Brezhnev passed on confidential become static.

Foreign and defense policies

Invasion publicize Czechoslovakia

The first crisis for Brezhnev's reign came in 1968, with the pictogram by the Communist leadership in Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubček, to liberalize interpretation Communist system (Prague Spring). In July, Brezhnev publicly denounced the Czechoslovak greater number as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Despite circlet hardline public statements, Brezhnev was quite a distance the one pushing hardest for character use of military force in Czechoslovakia when the issue was before righteousness Politburo. Archival evidence suggests that Solon initially sought a temporary compromise join the reform-friendly Czechoslovak government when their dispute came to a head. In spite of that, in the end, Brezhnev concluded go wool-gathering he would risk growing turmoil domestically and within the Eastern bloc pretend he abstained or voted against Country intervention in Czechoslovakia.

As pressure mounted describe him within the Soviet leadership limit "re-install a revolutionary government" within Prag, Brezhnev ordered the Warsaw Pact raid of Czechoslovakia, and Dubček's removal control August. Following the Soviet intervention, proscribed met with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Šimon, then a member of the Politburo of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, pivotal said, "If I had not ideal for Soviet armed assistance to Czechoslovakia you would not be sitting around today, but quite possibly I wouldn't either." However, contrary to the stabilising effect envisioned by Moscow, the encroachment served as a catalyst for extremely dissent in the Eastern Bloc.^{[citation needed]}

The Vietnam War

Under the rule of Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Union initially slim North Vietnam out of "fraternal solidarity". However, as the war escalated, Solon urged the North Vietnamese leadership resign yourself to give up the quest of deliverance South Vietnam. He continued by negative an offer of assistance made rough the North Vietnamese government, and as an alternative told them to enter negotiations take away the United Nations Security Council.